Article 7: The Invisible Soldiers Women in War II

by Christina Roeckenwagner

Although largely undocumented or ignored, during World War II many women flocked to join the military to contribute to their countries’ war efforts; however, traditional gender roles held in society often prevented women from realizing their full potential. Nevertheless, whether they belonged to the Axis or Allied countries, and for a variety of reasons, women pushed to enter the front lines for their country and in doing so they were able to stretch the traditional gender norms of women, contributing to the war efforts of their own countries. Many women proved to be both willing and capable of working in the military. As a matter of fact, if it were not for the many restrictions that were placed upon them, their contributions would have likely been much greater. More work and research is needed on this topic, however, this essay will examine some of the research to bring to light the motivations women had to enlist in the army, the barriers they faced, the ways in which they were able to step out of their gender roles, and how, despite restrictions many women were able contribute to the war efforts in World War II.

Prior to the break out of World War II, most women had assumed their traditional roles as mothers and wives, while their paid work often consisted of “women’s work,” such as clerical positions or involvement in service industries. As the war began, and more and more men were shipped out to fight, women were placed into industrial positions, or “man’s work.” However, women wanted to do more. As the turmoil between the Axis and Allied powers involved in World War II continued to boil over, women became increasingly interested in straying from what was expected of them by enlisting in the military. Women were interested in doing what they could in order to bring the war to an end as soon as possible and were willing to do what it took to aid in this process. As the American woman Beatrice Hood Stroup stated, “It wasn’t just my brother’s country, or my husband’s country; it was my country as well. And so this war wasn’t just their war, it was my war and I needed to serve in it.” Patriotic sentiments like these were not uncommon by women who wished to defend their country. Although patriotism was a common motivation for women wanting to join in on the front lines, there were actually many reasons women wanted to risk their lives by joining the military.

Some women insisted on joining the war efforts of World War II in honour of their loved ones. Many women chose to enlist because their husbands, sons, or brothers, had been killed in action or were possibly being held as prisoners of war. The women wished to avenge the deaths of their loved ones, to replace them on the front, or to help in any way they could to bring the war to an end as quickly as possible in hopes that their loved ones would be released to them. Additionally, for many women their reasons to join the military were much simpler: they did not want to just sit around doing nothing or they were sick of working the same old desk job. Entry into the military also allowed women to obtain opportunities that would not have been offered to them as civilians.

In one study, forty percent of United States’ female veterans of World War II who were interviewed, claimed that their reason for enlisting in the military was to “try something different”, while twenty-five to thirty-one percent claimed their desire for adventure or travel influenced their decision to enlist. Additionally, for Indigenous women, such as in Australia, where during the 1930s to 1960s the Australian government was enacting assimilation policies, enlisting in the army was a way in which Indigenous women were able to achieve higher education and escape their inevitable fate of becoming a domestic servant. It was also stated by some women that they wished to join the military to prove that they could fight as well as men. Regardless of the reasons why women wished to enlist in the military, in most cases barriers needed to be broken through in order for the women to reach the front lines.

Barriers and Opposition
Although many women were willing and even eager to enter into the military in order to assist their country during World War II, in most countries due to the traditional gender norms of the time they faced barriers which either delayed or outright denied their acceptance. Nevertheless, many women were able to make it into the military and some were able to make it to the front lines. Women faced barriers from entering into the military due to the expected stereotypical roles of their gender, the anticipated negative influence the military could impose on women, the concerns for the maintenance of femininity, and the threat perceived by men to their own masculinity. These barriers were imposed by such groups as the Church, men, women, the army itself, and the mass media which negatively influenced the enlistment of women in the military.

One group that strongly opposed women’s entry into the army was the Catholic Church. For example, in 1942, the United States National Catholic Women’s Union stated the service of women in the army to be, “a serious menace in the home and foundation of a true Christian and democratic country.” Other Catholics were concerned with sending “impressionable” girls into the army and into an environment that could lead them to ungodly temptations. The Catholic Church was concerned about the morality and welfare of women if they were to serve in the military and the impact this would have on their country. The Catholics were just one of the several groups concerned with and opposed to women fighting for their country which would have made it more difficult for women to enlist.

As women were coming forward with interest to do what they could for their country, men were becoming troubled with what would become of women’s traditional statuses in the home and feared their own statuses as female protectors and breadwinners would be altered. Men feared what they considered the “natural order” of men and women would be drastically compromised and therefore often objected to their girlfriends, wives, or daughters enlisting in the military. However, it was not just the men; some women’s groups also expressed concern for women entering into the military, although most women showed enthusiasm for the prospect. The opinions of these men and women would have made it more difficult for women to enlist in the military; although it was the military itself which perhaps (if only initially and only by some members) demonstrated the strongest opposition towards permitting women to fight amongst the ranks of their men who made it most difficult for them to enlist.

There were various concerns that the army expressed about women serving in the military. One issue was that some of the army leaders felt that women would only cause a distraction for men. Some personnel of the United States Army feared that, “Men would not be able to function properly fighting alongside women.” There was a concern that a man’s instinctual need to protect women could lead to them seeking to defend women military members rather than focusing on their assigned missions. Additionally, the military was traditionally viewed by as a man’s responsibility. Colonel McCoskrie, who ironically would later serve as the Women’s Army Auxiliary Corps training centre commander, stated that, “We had a war to fight, and war was man’s business. Women would only clutter it up.” The military’s function was often seen as the ultimate test of a man’s masculinity, and adding women into the forces would take away from the façade.
The Army was further concerned about the potential for women’s promiscuity within the military and how that would affect their men and their reputation. The army was concerned that if women were allowed into the military and to “behave like a man,” this would also mean that they would learn to “misbehave like a man.” The fear was that women would become more sexually promiscuous by gaining the right to join the military. Furthermore, there was a concern that as women entered into “man’s work” they would lose touch with their femininity and might be more likely to engage in homosexual activity. These concerns continued throughout the war, even after women began to be allowed in the military. For example, women of the Canadian Women’s Auxiliary Corps (CWAC) were encouraged to maintain their feminine appearance. The Canadian Army actually provided the women with hairdressers, cosmetic products, and rayon stockings to maintain their femininity. All of these concerns were often mirrored in society and presented in mass media which could be considered as another barrier for women’s entry into the military because it likely deterred women from enlisting.

By examining old newspaper and journal records, society’s negative views towards women’s capacity for serving in the military is evident. Women in the military were often portrayed as less than soldiers, temporary, and insignificant; their potential contributions or contributions to the war efforts often went ignored in the media. For example, journalists would often inquire about what the uniforms of military women would be, and they showed a keen interest as to what their undergarments would look like. This was never a concern when it came to men in the military. Additionally, journalists often used subtle humour to express reservations about women’s potential in the military and used captions that were often frivolous in nature. This was another barrier that women faced when making the decision to enter into the military because women would have likely became fearful to be portrayed as “silly” or as the laughing stock of their country.

These preconceived notions about a women’s role in society and the unsubstantiated fears of the Church, men and women’s groups, the army, and society as a whole that the enlistment of women into the military would alter their roles and behaviours not only made it more difficult for women to enter into the military, but likely dissuaded many women from enlisting in the first place. Regardless, an insurmountable number of women did make it into the military and were able to expand their horizons into roles that were traditionally considered as masculine and were able to contribute to the war efforts of their own countries.

Women Enter the Military
Despite the barriers, hundreds of thousands and possibly millions of women from the United States, Britain, Germany, and the Soviet Union entered the military and fought bravely on both sides of the battle and on every front during World War II. Women from allied countries such as Canada and Australia also assisted in the war; however, documentation of these women is scant. The experiences of these women varied depending on their country of origin and the restrictions that were placed upon them. The United States and Britain seemed to have held similar ideals about what women in the military should be permitted to do and what their responsibilities in the war should entail. Germany also held similar ideals, yet were much more restrictive. The Soviet Union was much less restrictive and placed their women into pretty well every position within the military. Regardless of their positions, women stepped out of their traditional roles provided to them by society and proved to be an asset to each of their countries war efforts, and may have actually impacted the outcome of World War II.

The WAAC
In the United States, the first Women’s Auxiliary Army Corps (WAAC) was organized and created in 1941 by a woman named Oveta Culp Hobby under the direction of General David Searles of the United States Army. America had yet to enter into the war; however the War department was receiving ten thousand letters per day from women who wanted to serve. Hobby was made director of the WAAC who was responsible for the group’s organization, enlistment, and recruitment.

Although the WAAC was created and women were being permitted to assist in the war efforts in America, they were initially only considered as volunteers. They were not given military status, thus, received no military benefits and no protection under existing international agreements covering prisoners of war. It was not until 1942 that Director Hobby through General Marshall brought forth this issue to Congress. Congressmen were not impressed with the WAAC bill and many were strongly opposed. For example, Congressman Somers of New York stated, the bill was “the silliest piece of legislation that has ever come before my notice in the years I have served here.” Furthermore, Congressman Randolph called the WAAC bill a “grave mistake” while other congressman claimed it to be the “most ridiculous bill” and a “poor reflection upon the courageous manhood of our country.” It would take six months of heavy debate before Congress would recognize the value of womanpower and pass the WAAC bill. By spring of 1942 the women of the WAAC became official members of the military.

Although the WAAC which was by 1943 classified as the WAC and therefore official members of the military, they were not treated as equals. For example, if women of the WAC were accused of frowned upon behavior, such as vulgar language, drunkenness, or illicit sexual activity, they could be discharged. This behaviour for men was often encouraged, which is a demonstration of the double standards women faced. Additionally, women of the WAC were restricted by the types of jobs that they were permitted to do. Initially congress only agreed to women being capable of fifty-four army jobs; however women were successful at getting into two hundred and thirty-nine positions. Nonetheless, these women were never sent into actual ‘combat’ as the American officials seemed to hold on to the gendered stereotypes that these women were not suitable for the front lines.

From December 1942 to April 1943 Army General Marshall recruited women from the WAC to participate in a classified experiment to see how women would fare alongside men in antiaircraft (AA) gun batteries and searchlight units. Colonel Edward W. Timberlake, who was the commander of these experimental AA units, observed the women to have exhibited, “outstanding devotion to duty, willingness to absorb and grasp technical information concerning the problems, and maintenance and tactical disposition to all types of equipment.” Timberlake was pleasantly surprised that despite the typical stereotypes of women being too mentally or physically weak to perform combat jobs, they proved to meet all physical, intellectual, and psychological standards for the AA mission. Additionally, despite Officials’ fears of potential impropriety and promiscuity, the men and women held satisfactory and respectful relationships. The experiment proved to be a success, and General Marshall was faced with the decision on whether or not to put women into combat, which meant this classified experiment, would become public knowledge which considered that the general disapproval of women in the military could prove to be problematic. Marshall sought advice from his staff and was told to terminate the experiment immediately and that the women would be put to better use in clerical and administrative positions. Despite the fact that the WAC women were able to prove that they were more than capable of stepping outside of their traditional roles as women by working on the front lines, the gender stereotypes held by society prevented them from achieving combat positions.

Similar actions also took place within the United States Women’s Naval Reserve (WAVES), where the law was amended in 1942 to forbid their service overseas. Also, despite the fact the American Women’s Airforce Service Pilot’s (WASPs) were able to prove their efficiency in flying heavy four-engine bombers, but their services were not utilized overseas.

The WASPs
The Women’s Airforce Service Pilots or WASPs was formed in 1943 by esteemed pilots Jacqueline “Jackie” Cochran and Nancy Harkness Love. The initial intention for the formation of the WASPs was to enable talented female pilots to provide services to the Army Air Forces by ferrying planes to bases, and testing military planes to free more men for the front lines. As the women were in training, seventeen of the most talented pilots were selected to train in Lockbourne, Ohio in a top-secret experiment to see whether women were capable of flying the new four-engine bomber planes, the B-17s, also known as the “Flying Fortresses.” The secrecy of this experiment was based on the Army Airforce’s (AAF) fear that the women would fail and the financial cost of the training and the planes could potentially cost a publicity nightmare.

The AAF’s fears that the women in Lockbourne would fail was based on their belief that women might not be physically strong enough to handle the massive plane, that they did not have the mental stamina, and also that a woman’s ability to fly might be restricted during her menstrual cycle. Nevertheless, the WASPs’ women performed at or above expectations and were found by the base surgeon to be, “comparable to those of the current male officer personnel on full flying status.” Also, when it came to concerns over the women’s mental stamina, they were able to prove that they had the mental strength to conquer the massive B-17s. Flight commander John Hurley stated that, ‘the women were not as nervous as the men who flew the B-17.” Furthermore, the assumed inability for women to fly during their menstrual cycle was based on one commander’s assumptions and order to ground the women during their menstrual cycle. However, the base surgeon determined that this was unfounded and women should not be grounded during her menstrual cycle as this did not impact her ability to fly. All in all the women proved to have the physical and mental stamina to persevere as B-17 pilots with the ability to ferry these massive planes to overseas bases. Regardless, the Army chose not to utilize these women’s abilities.

In 1943 despite their excellent ratings and qualifications, it was reported that the women of the WASPs were only being permitted to fly as co-pilots. Also, the B-17 began to be phased out of use; therefore the WASPs’ career as B-17 pilots barely got off the ground before it was over. The entire WASPs program was put to an end in October 1944, and all the women were separated from the military. Despite the fact that these woman proved to be exceptional pilots and assets to the military, due to the American Air Force’s sexism they were never able to use their abilities to service their country on the front lines. These women were however able to bend their traditional gender roles and prove that women could be a whole lot more than a housewife. The same could be said for the women of Britain.

The ATS
In some aspects British women’s experiences in World War II and the military were much the same in Britain as they were for women in America; they were allowed into the military, but there would be restrictions. In contrast, however, women from Britain were actually placed into combat on the home front of London and later throughout England. General Pike of the British Army created experimental groups of mixed batteries of both men and women. The National Service Act of 1941 drafted one hundred twenty-five thousand women into the British military within the next three years and four hundred thirty thousand women additionally volunteered. The largest unit of women was in the Auxiliary Territorial Service (ATS) where women were given military status and pay; however, their pay was only two-thirds of the pay to men with equal rank. Despite the fact they were paid less, women of the ATS proved to be just as qualified for their jobs as the men were and an asset on the front lines, yet there were some jobs that they were still prohibited in doing.

Women of the ATS were trained in every aspect of the job within the AA command and in this mixed brigade the women were in charge of operating the fire-control instruments, whereas the men were in charge of the actual firing of the guns. Women were also trained and proved to be proficient as drivers, radar operators, and aircraft spotters. As one woman of the ATS stated, “…we have learned to do every job in camp except fire the guns—and I bet we could do that too if we were allowed.” The women learned how and were permitted to set the range and bearing dials on the guns and adjust the fuses on the shells; however, regulations prohibited the women from actually engaging the firing mechanism. This demonstrates that although these women were allowed into the military and proved capable of doing the job, gender stereotypes set restrictions to what the women in the ATS were able to do.

Additionally, some of the women in the ATS were assigned to searchlight units where often they were placed alone with a male partner. Some British officers were afraid of the scandal this would cause and also feared what the German Luftwaffe would think. Nevertheless, sex scandals in the searchlight units never materialized and these units were a great contribution to the British front lines. Although the living conditions to which the ATS units had to live were considered primitive and the danger level was extremely high, these women held their positions on the front lines and were able to successfully assist in taking down enemy planes and significantly contribute to Britain’s war efforts. British Women in the ATS were able to step out of their ingrained gender norms regardless of public doubt and as a result, several of them were injured or died in the line of duty; their sacrifices should be seen as nothing short of heroic. In Germany, much of the same gendered stereotypes as in the United States and Britain were demonstrated and women were restricted in the positions they were permitted to do.

Blitzmӓdchen
At the beginning of World War II Adolf Hitler felt that the entire responsibility of women was to remain in the home and to produce children in order to guarantee the survival of the Aryan race. However, as the war went on women began to replace men in industry positions and by 1941 were serving in Female Auxiliary Units doing administrative work for the military. As Hitler became increasingly desperate and in need of more manpower, he became more lenient and realized that he would have to enforce womanpower to replace the men who were sent to the Eastern Front. Approximately four hundred and fifty thousand women joined the women’s auxiliary units in the German military; however they were mostly posted in clerical positions and were not referred to as female “soldiers”. The women were nicknamed the Blitzmӓdchen; a condescending name which referred to them as “little girls” and was a reflection of the German view of women as weak and incapable.

Regardless of Hitler’s views of women, with the increasing severity of the war by 1943, Hitler decided to train women in AA and searchlight positions and by the end of the war sixty-five thousand and one-hundred thousand women were serving in AA and searchlight units in the Luftwaffe. However, as was the case for women in Britain, the women were trained in all aspects of the position, but were never permitted to fire the guns. The public and the true Nazis would never accept women using weapons. It was only women who were in remote areas of the Reich, who could easily be overrun by Soviets, who were permitted to carry weaponry. By 1945, as Hitler became more and more desperate he decided to create an experimental women’s infantry battalion; however, Hitler’s main intention for the group was to shame the male deserters who were evading their natural order to die for their country. Again, this is condescending and a reflection of Germany’s views of women. The war would end before these women were ever trained or utilized in combat.

Despite the strict restrictions on women in Nazi Germany, women demonstrated that they were willing and capable of joining the men on the war front and stepping out of their positions as protectors of the Aryan race. Had the German military permitted women to take up arms beside the men, their contribution to the war efforts would have likely been greater and the outcome of the war could have possibly been different. Nevertheless, they should be considered as great contributors to the German military. Germany was not willing to have their women be considered as “Gun Women”, which was a contemptuous term the Germans used to describe the women of the Soviet Union Red Army.

The Red Army
Unlike the United States, Britain, and Germany, the Soviet Union mobilized their women almost immediately with the onset of World War II and completely surpassed the “auxiliary” stage and status for females. About one million women would serve in the Soviet Union’s war efforts in various armed forces, militia, and partisan groups. Eight-hundred thousand of these women served in the Red Army, where half of their positions were in front-line combat units. Women in all positions, including those who were considered non-combatant were trained to handle weapons. Many of the women of the Red Army were trained with automatic weapons and submachine guns, as scouts and interrogators, in tank crews, as specialized snipers, and fighter pilots. The most famous group of female pilots was the 588th Night Bombers who proved to be so affective that the Germans nicknamed them the “Night Witches.”

Unlike the other countries discussed, the Soviet Union did not question the physical strength and ability of their women and in their positions women were able to prove their capabilities. One of the Soviet women boasted that women in the Red Army had greater physical endurance than men. Vera Safronovna stated, “We marched for 30 to 40 kilometers; horses dropped dead, men fell, but women kept on walking and—can you imagine it?—singing.”

With the USSR officials allowing women into the Red Army and not restricting the positions that they were permitted to do, they were able to completely integrate themselves into the military, contributing greatly to the war efforts of the Soviet Union. Many Soviet women were responsible for successfully taking down German soldiers, in doing so, as was seen in other countries involved in World War II, the Red Army women were able to prove that women were more than capable of defending their country and could be successful in doing so.

After the War
Whether women in the military were permitted to work in front line combat positions or not, their contributions to World War II and their ability to stretch their traditional gender roles as women should be recognized. The countries that did more effectively integrate women into their military, such as the United States, Britain, and the Soviet Union ended up the victors of World War II. Therefore, their contributions along- side the men during the war should no longer be ignored. Secondly, some of the women who were involved in the military won awards of valor, which further demonstrates their contributions to their country during World War II and their excellence should be acknowledged.

One former WAC woman claimed that by serving in the military she, together with the other women she served with, were able to gain self-understanding, discipline, and confidence. Also, a former WAC lieutenant claimed that the military “brought out the best in me and provided an opportunity to explore my potential abilities and capabilities.” These women, like other women in the military during World War II definitely demonstrated that they had much more potential than what society ascribed to them and some even were credited with awards at the end of World War II.

Oveta Culp Hobby for one, creator and director of the WAC who later became the first female Colonel of the military was also awarded the highest award in the military; the Distinguished Service Medal. Additionally, although no women of the WAC were responsible for taking the lives of any enemies, several of the women still received awards. After the war, fourteen women of the WAC were awarded the Purple Heart. The WAC was also praised by the enemy.

After World War II, Hitler’s weapons production chief stated, “How wise you were to bring your women into your military….Had we done that initially, as you did, it could well have affected the whole course of the war.” Germany apparently realized their error in not fully capitalizing on women’s use in their military and realized this may have impacted the outcome of the war. Although Germany was more reluctant to permit their women to take part in their war efforts, some women received awards after the war as well. One German woman, by the name of “Erna” was awarded the Iron Cross, for when she together with two servicemen was responsible for destroying three enemy tanks with bazookas. Awards such as this would have been significant as most women in Germany were not permitted to fire weaponry.

As the women of the Soviet Union Red Army were most integrated into their country’s war efforts, they would leave the war as the most decorated women of World War II. Women only made up about eight percent of all the combatants who fought for the Soviet Union in World War II. Nevertheless, they made an impact that did not go unnoticed. Between one hundred thousand and one hundred-fifty thousand women were decorated with medals after the war. The two highest awards given out by the Soviet Union were the Order of Glory and the Hero of the Soviet Union. Four women received the Order of Glory post World War II, and ninety-five women were awarded the Hero of the Soviet Union. Some women, such as Senior Sergeant Albina Gantimurova, received more than one award. Sergeant Gantimurova who served as a scout for the Red Army during World War II actually received two Orders of the Red Star, two Orders of Glory, and two Medals of Valor.

The study of women’s contributions to the war efforts of World War II needs to be expanded and further examined. With the research that has been conducted, one is able to conclude that women were not only able to prove that they were able to step out of their gender norms and had the tenacity and strength to be in the military; they also proved to be assets to their country. Women entered into the military for reasons ranging from patriotism to boredom but were faced with barriers and opposition based on their stereotypical gender roles ascribed to them by society. Many women were restricted in the positions they were permitted to do, yet they still proved to have the mental and physical strength to take on virtually any task within the military. Countries such as the United States, Britain, and the Soviet Union utilized their womanpower much more than Germany and were also the victors; further examination into women’s contributions could lead to whether this was a coincidence or correlation and will allow women to no longer be the invisible soldiers of World War II.

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Disclaimer: Readers should be aware that due to formatting constraints, quoted sources in this article could not be included in footnotes and endnotes. Readers should please consult the bibliography section of the article. Inquires may be directed to the author.

About the Author: Christina Roeckenwagner is in her final year of the Bachelor of Arts program at UCN. With her Bachelor of Arts, she plans to enter into the Bachelor of Education program in 2018-2019 to become a teacher in Thompson. She has chosen History as her major and has enjoyed gaining a broader perspective of the past by studying history through various lenses. She hopes to use the knowledge she has acquired at UCN to inspire her two daughters and her future students.

Instructor’s Remarks: Christina Roeckenwagner has consistently demonstrated a strong commitment to her studies in my classes over the last few years at UCN. Her contributions to the discussion of the readings and lectures are often insightful and show considerable intelligence and careful thought. This was particularly evident during the winter term of the 2017-18 academic year while she was enrolled in the course “Women and the World Wars”. This well-researched and executed paper emerged from Roeckenwagner’s investigation of women whose lives were both shaped and in turn helped to shape the conflicts in which they found themselves. The essay highlights the often untold stories of remarkable individuals caught up in the devastating and extraordinary events of the Second World War. (Dr. Greg Stott)